"Union of Soviet Socialist Republics New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. In the cities conditions were equally difficult for the urban poor, and the war caused even more drastic shortages of basic necessities like food and fuel. For various political and socioeconomic reasons, these tensions between peasants and landlords, urban industrial workers and their bosses, and alienated middle-class intellectuals and the anachronistic tsarist state grew in the decades before 1914. These events highlighted the fact that Khrushchev never exercised the high level of authority that Stalin did. Moreover, improved relations with the West infuriated Soviet hardliners. The interaction between the Soviet Union and what was known as the Communist bloc led ultimately, however, to important two-way influence once serious reform got underway in Moscow in 1987–1988. In March 1922, for instance, Lenin ordered the confiscation "with the most savage and merciless energy" of valuables belonging to the Orthodox Church. In September 1936 Stalin appointed Nikolai Ezhov, a known hardline adversary of "anti-Party elements," as head of the NKVD (secret police). 1992. "'Socially Harmful Elements' and the Great Terror." The Soviet Union at its largest size in 1991, with 22,400,000 square kilometres (8,600,000 sq mi), was the world's biggest country. The Presidium even voted Khrushchev out of office in June 1957, but the Central Committee (the highest body of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union to which the Politburo reported to) overturned the decision and expelled Khrushchev’s opponents. For this reason, the USSR sought to strengthen its control of the region. The U.S.S.R, popularly known as the Soviet Union, officially recognized as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, is a Eurasian Socialist Federation encompassing the entirety of northern Asia and a majority of Eastern Europe.It is the largest nation on earth by land area and possesses the world’s third biggest population. Союз Советских Социалистических Республик, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Day of International Solidarity of Labor people, Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, The Fine Line between the Enforcement of Human Rights Agreements and the Violation of National Sovereignty: The Case of Soviet Dissidents. The Soviet "liberation" of Eastern Europe, by contrast, led to the imposition of Soviet-style dictatorial regimes in that half of the continent and the suppression of freedom within East-Central Europe for another four decades. McAuley, Mary. . THE AGE OF STALIN Therefore, it’s best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication’s requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html, FROM STALIN’S DEATH TO GORBACHEV’S REFORM. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics synonyms, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics pronunciation, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics translation, English dictionary definition of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. Gorbachev also supported a new treaty of union that would end Moscow’s and the CPSU’s centralized hold on the individual republics, instead creating a new federation of independent republics, but just prior to its signing in August 1991 Gorbachev was surprised by a delegation of top-ranking officials at his summer home in the Crimea. Traditional explanations for the strictly political aspects of the Great Terror stress Stalin's lust for power and his determination to liquidate all real and perceived rivals in a paranoiac drive for autocratic rule. A year before his death in January 1924 he dictated a document that became known as "Lenin's Testament," in which he evaluated the strengths and weaknesses of six top Bolsheviks. In practice, the degree to which the nationals of the various Soviet republics ran their republics, and the extent to which they were given some latitude to introduce local variation, changed over time. "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics . One of the first decrees of the Bolshevik regime in December 1917 was the creation of the Cheka, the original Soviet secret police force and forerunner of the much-vaunted KGB. 16 Oct. 2020 . Soviet (sovet ) is the Russian word for "council" or "advice." The changes in the USSR emboldened reformers and advocates of national independence in East-Central Europe. The events of September 11, 2001, indicate that this has officially replaced nuclear war as the greatest threat to peace. The "myth" of the Battle of Stalingrad and the euphoria of total victory in May 1945 have tended to obscure the horrendous suffering perpetrated by the regime on millions of Soviet citizens during World War II. The Congress of Soviets would elect the government, called the Council of People’s Commissars. (October 16, 2020). The USSR was stripped of much of its former glory, including most of its air force. Stalin's timely demise on March 5 put an end to their suffering and brought to a close the era of mass repression in the USSR. The decree remained in force until November 1938. 16 Oct. 2020 . Its duty was to ensure that the government complied with Soviet laws, and it also supervised the lower courts. The most notorious of these early Soviet camps was the prison on the Solovetskii Islands in the White Sea in the far north of Russia. Soyúznye Respúbliki) were ethnically based administrative units of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). Covering a sixth of the world's lived in land, its size was comparable to North America's. . Science and Society 69 (4): 594–606. The games were heavily boycotted by the western nations, particularly the United States. . Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. Civil war intensified in 1918, with anti-Bolshevik forces called the Whites fighting Bolshevik troops of the “Red Army” banner until 1921. There are no longer two clear-cut superpowers dominating international political life. The various ministries of government were called the People’s Commissariats but were later renamed the Council of Ministers. Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. Although there is debate over what exactly caused the Soviet Union’s demise, it is clear that the policies of perestroika and glasnost led to unintended consequences that greatly contributed to this. Moreover, the doctrine of democratic centralism that governed relations within the Communist Party (and in Brezhnev's time was made a principle of the organization of the entire Soviet state) made a mockery of the federal principle. The Baltic states were forcibly incorporated in 1940, and in the post-World War II Soviet Union there were fifteen Union Republics. In the absence of definitive data, however, it seems prudent to accept the archival figures as essentially accurate. Nevertheless, Lenin's implacable attitude toward political and ideological adversaries undoubtedly contributed to the formation of a one-party state in Soviet Russia, a major step on the road to which was the forcible dissolution of the Constitutent Assembly (the multiparty national parliament) as early as January 1918. the bloodsucker kulaks" (Pipes, 1996, p. 50). This precipitated a return to more interventionist economic policies by the government. The Union was successful in many fields, putting the first man and satellite into space and winning World War II alongside the United States and United Kingdom. These camps housed not only political prisoners, but also ordinary criminals. The USSR launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957; a living dog named Laika in 1957; the first human being, Yuri Gagarin in 1961; the first woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova in 1963; Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space in 1965; the first soft landing on the Moon by spacecraft Luna 9 in 1966; and the first Moon rovers, Lunokhod 1 and Lunokhod 2. New York: Random House. The Soviet Union ceased to exist by the end of December. The Soviet Demise: Revisionist Betrayal, Structural Defect, or Authoritarian Distortion? (1993). London: Collins/Harvill Press. Brezhnev's rule is often linked with the decline in Soviet economy and starting the chain of events that would lead to the union's eventual collapse. The Unknown Lenin. Gorbachev attempted to restructure the Soviet system into a less centralized state. As a result of his so-called revolution launched in 1928 and 1929—the forced collectivization and "dekulakization" of the countryside and the intensely rapid tempos of industrialization—millions of Soviet citizens, particularly peasants, endured dire living conditions and often direct persecution at the hands of Stalinist leaders whose overriding priority was to make the USSR economically and militarily secure. Khrushchev’s removal from office was followed by another period of rule by collective leadership. . All of this suggests that it is likely that few topics will generate as much social science research as the Soviet Union did. The Soviet Union was made of 15 republics. Retrieved October 16, 2020 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/union-soviet-socialist-republics-0. The Central Asian republics had independence virtually thrust upon them when Boris Yeltsin joined the leaders of Ukraine and Belorussia in December 1991 to proclaim that the USSR would cease to exist. Portrayed in the Soviet media as a heroic war of patriotism, there were many grim sides to this life-and-death struggle between the two totalitarian giants. However, its centralized government found innovation and change difficult to handle. This page was last changed on 30 November 2020, at 01:36. Russian political culture lacked liberal or democratic roots and institutions, and for many centuries the state had dominated society, often using repressive methods carried out by a prototype secret police force. Historical Dictionary of Socialism. As the Communist Party continued to consolidate its authority throughout the country, it became a monolithic presence. https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/union-soviet-socialist-republics, "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. Lenin’s death in January 1924 cemented Stalin’s dominance over the Politburo, the executive committee of the Communist Party. It was established in 1922 and dissolved in 1991. The world's deepest lake, Lake Baikal, was in the Soviet Union. In 1906 Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) was elected RSDLP president by a faction of his supporters who agreed with his idea that a more radical approach was necessary to bring revolution to Russia. Russian political culture lacked liberal or democratic roots and institutions, and for many centuries the state had dominated society, often using repressive methods carried out by a prototype secret police force. Furthermore, it gave assistance to antifascists in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). Lenin himself actively contributed to the wave of Red Terror. The Soviet Union expanded its political control greatly after World War II. What is more, he appeared to be a true Marxist dedicated to the construction of socialism in the USSR. The KGB had broad powers to spy on Soviet citizens, who could be brought to trial and sentenced to labor camps for crimes against the state, which included criticisms of party leadership. After the coup the Soviet republics accelerated their process toward independence. In the interim period between the meetings of the Congresses of Soviets, ruling power would be held by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Nuclear disarmament and reconfigured security arrangements are the salient themes in this “new world order.” Economic interdependence and political integration are also being seen everywhere. This allowed the Bolsheviks (Communists) to arouse widespread interest in a socialist revolution. After the economic policy of War Communism during the Civil War, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist with nationalized industry in the 1920s and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax (see New Economic Policy). Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for Soviet leaders to take more power in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Coleman, Fred. Large numbers of "Old Bolsheviks," former opponents, and a host of unreliable double dealers, wreckers, and saboteurs were targeted in what became an arbitrary frenzy of bloodletting. These two documents were made true by the 1st Congress of Soviets of the USSR and signed by heads of delegations. Moldova was declared a sovereign state on June 23, 1990 but was officially known as the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova until … Inmates were in essence slave labor, whose contribution to the Soviet economy, especially from the 1930s, should not be overlooked. The terror, it is argued, was inextricably linked to the massive campaigns of industrialization and the forced collectivization and dekulakization of Soviet agriculture from 1928 and 1929 on. Cite this article Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. He came to power after he convinced the government to overthrow the then-leader Nikita Krushchev. The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a federal socialist state in Northern Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. There is no doubt that the Soviet Union was one of the most powerful countries in the world during its period of existence, especially from 1945 to 1991. In particular, the lessons of the Spanish Civil War induced an atmosphere of panic in the Kremlin and incited the Stalinists to seek "enemies" at home and abroad. Nevertheless, the USSR played the major part in the defeat of Nazi Germany in Europe in World War II and earned the gratitude of many citizens of Western Europe. Although the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia in November 1917, it was not until 1922 that the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was formed. However, Lenin realized that a radical approach to communism did not suit existing conditions and jeopardized the survival of his regime. so that they will not dare even to think of any resistance for several decades" (Pipes, 1996, p. 153–54). 1931) became general secretary in March 1985. With the defeat of the USSR, the Allies began to help rebuild the defeated nation. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a country that existed in Earth's 20th century, stretching across Europe and Asia. . After the succession struggle abated, Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) emerged as first secretary. Although the number of arrests and executions decreased significantly after November 1938, during World War II entire populations (Volga Germans, Chechens, Ingushi, Kalmyks, Crimean Tartars, and others) were deported from their homelands to Central Asia and Siberia, accused of subversive tactics, espionage, and collaboration with the occupying Nazi forces. According to one historian, the Great Terror represented "the culmination of a decade-long radicalization of policing practice against 'recidivist' criminals, social marginals, and all manner of lower-class individuals" (Hagenloh, 2000, p. 286). DEALING WITH THE STALINIST LEGACY The largest country in the world by area, Russia is bounded by Norway and Finland in the northwest; by Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, ..... Click the link for more information. ) (2001). Basingstoke, U.K.: Palgrave Macmillan. (1998). However, beginning in the 1980s so-called revisionist historians challenged this Stalin-oriented approach, arguing that one man could not, and did not, decide everything. He advised the Party to find a way of removing Stalin from his post. The Plan became the prototype for subsequent Five-Year Plans and was basically fulfilled by 1931. Encyclopedia.com. There is no doubt that Stalin was the prime perpetrator of the Terror, even if historians disagree on whether he had a long-term blueprint to eliminate his opponents. Between 1931 and 1933 around 25,000 convicts perished building the White Sea Canal, one of Stalin's pet schemes involving forced labor. The election of its membership marked the first tentative steps toward a multiparty system. Although the Soviet Union was formed in 1922, the first of the soviet socialist republics were created in 1917, after the Russian Revolution overthrew the rulers of the Russian Empire. The top-level committee which made the laws was the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Lithuania announced its independence from the Union and the Soviet government demanded it surrender its independence or it would send the Red Army to keep order. Here it is suggested that the roots of Soviet terror lay not only in the personal ambitions and whims of Lenin and Stalin, but also equally in the ideologically driven utopian mission of creating the perfect communist society purged of the politically and socially unfit in circumstances of international isolation and perceived foreign threats. : Harvard University Press. Renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) in 1952, the party ruled every aspect of Soviet life. (1971). Lenin returned from exile in Switzerland in April 1917, with imperial Germany—at war with Russia still—permitting him passage on a sealed train to the Russian capital of St. Petersburg, now renamed Petrograd; the Germans believed his return would only further destabilize Russia. One of the most important and notable breakthroughs was the GOELRO plan, that planned a major change of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. Andropov was succeeded by the frail and aging Konstantin Chernenko. Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison. As with the previous documents, civil liberties such as freedom of speech, of religion, and of assembly were protected—so long as they did not infringe upon the goals of the state or tenets of the Communist Party, which the 1977 Constitution described the “leading and guiding force” of the state. From these relatively humble origins emerged the vast system of Soviet labor camps, widely known as the Gulag Archipelago (Gulag being, in Russian, the acronym for Main Administration of Camps). Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity. There were a number of them. A multiplicity of factors—internal and external, ideological and practical, personal and systemic—must be carefully weighed. Schapiro, Leonard. . One of the more reprehensible features of Stalin's rule after World War II was his increasing anti-Semitism. activist who got things done. Tucker, Robert C. (1990). ." Encyclopedia.com. The Soviet Union's highest mountain was Communism Peak (today it is called the Ismail Samani Peak) in Tajikistan measured at 7,495 metres (24,590 ft). During Brezhnev’s sixteen years as first secretary, economic and political reform was nonexistent. By the end of the decade, a former CPSU member and KGB officer, Vladimir Putin (1952–), had risen to power as president of the Russian Federation, and his domestic policies were criticized for appearing to rescind some of the democratic freedoms in place since the end of the Soviet Union. According to Richard Pipes, the aim was twofold: to secure vital assets for the cash-strapped Soviet government and to smash the power of the Orthodox Church and its hold over the peasantry. Although he survived the attempted takeover, he lost all of his power outside of Moscow. Studies conducted in the late 1990s document the interrelationship between, on the one hand, social disorder and evolving secret police strategies to contain it in the early to mid-1930s and, on the other, the onset of mass arrests in the summer of 1937. As the Soviet Union help “unite” Germany as one, the Chinese invaded Taiwan to finally liberate the people from the KMT fascist tyranny. Conquest, Robert (1971). A History of Modern Russia: From Nicolas II to Vladimir Putin. A provisional government was established by the socialist Aleksandr Kerensky (1881–1970), a Duma deputy, but it, too, struggled to maintain order among civilians and a disheartened, ill-equipped military. The tsarist autocracy was replaced by the Russian "Provisional government", whose leaders intended to have elections to Russian Constituent Assembly and to continue war on the side of the Entente in World War I. The Court of the Red Tsar. There were three different constitutions that provided the framework for the Soviet state. Only one legislative election was ever held in the Soviet Union, however, in March 1989, but it was the first time that new political parties had been allowed to form and participate in the electoral process. Encyclopedia.com. . After France and Britain acquiesced to Adolph Hitler’s (1889–1945) demands for Czechoslovak territory at Munich, Germany, in 1938, Soviet foreign policy shifted again; Stalin decided to come to an understanding with Germany. Soviet Politics 1917–1991. NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (NEP) This self-proclaimed Marxist state was created out of the ruins of the Tszarist Empire following the Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917 and the ensuing civil war in Russia. One month earlier the tsar and his family had been murdered by local Bolsheviks in Ekaterinburg. The History of Twentieth Century Russia. (1999). Aside from these politically motivated aspects, another fundamental characteristic of the Great Terror was the social component. A Century of Violence in Soviet Russia. ." SEE ALSO Berlin Wall; Bolshevism; Castro, Fidel; Cold War; Communism; Confederations; Cuban Missile Crisis; Cuban Revolution; Decentralization; Deterrence, Mutual; Economies, Transitional; Glasnost; Gorbachev, Mikhail; Hitler, Adolf; Industrialization; Khrushchev, Nikita; Lenin, Vladimir Ilitch; Leninism; Nationalism and Nationality; Nationalization; Nation-State; Non-Alignment; Reagan, Ronald; Russian Revolution; Socialism; Stalin, Joseph; Third World; Trotsky, Leon; United Nations; Weaponry, Nuclear; World War II; Yeltsin, Boris. A year later Lenin was forced to flee the country because of his political activities. Whether this controversial interpretation is correct or not, the scale of human suffering endured in the early 1930s beggars belief. The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932–1939. Peace was maintained, however, largely through the Committee for State Security, known by its infamous Russian-language acronym KGB. Sakwa, Richard. . The history of the provisional government, the Revolution of 1917, Soviet Russia'… Premier Romanov appeared to be a man of peace, and even founded the World Sociali… Page 85. Refer to each style’s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. In February 1990 the unintended consequences of Gorbachev’s reforms forced the Central Committee of the Soviet Union to give up its monopoly of power. Stalin, along with U.S. and British leaders, agreed to divide up the conquered Nazi territory at the end of the war, and behind the Red Army’s push westward to beat the Nazis came party cadres who quickly allied with native communist organizations in the devastated countries of Eastern Europe. . Exceeding 5 million in the 1897 population census and thought to have been approximately the same on the eve of World War I, this population was now reduced by about one half. The capital city of the Soviet Union was Moscow. In response, on July 31, 1937, Stalin and his co-leaders sanctioned the notorious NKVD Order No. ." New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. Do it in such a way that for hundreds of versts [kilometres] around, the people will see, tremble, know, shout: they are strangling and will strangle . 143,888,000), 6,591,100 sq mi (17,070,949 sq km). Nove, Alec. Under Lenin, the new government centralized its control over the political, economic, social, and cultural lives of the Soviet people by prohibiting other political organizations and inaugurating one-party rule. His successors, notably Nikita Khrushchev, renounced terror, released large numbers of Gulag prisoners, and attempted, not altogether successfully, to "de-Stalinize" Soviet politics and society. In practice, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the leader and most important decision-maker in their system of government. As a leading scholar has written: "Jews were systematically removed from all positions of authority in the arts and the media, in journalism and publishing, and in medicine and many other professions" (Werth, 1999, p. 245). Service, Robert. It was not about to end. Stalin was thus a very capable, not unintelligent, leader who commanded the respect of his followers. Germany finally declared war on the Soviet Union in June 1941. He went on to establish a cult of personality and initiate a period of intense political repression. S. Fitzpatrick. Aron, Leon. Within the “Cite this article” tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1990. The Allied victory in 1945 gave the Soviet Union an opportunity to widen its sphere of influence. In 1956 he denounced Stalin's repression and eased controls over party and society. In the view of many scholars, the USSR under Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) and Joseph Stalin (1878–1953) evolved into a totalitarian dictatorship directly responsible for the deaths of millions of Soviet citizens. McAuley, Mary. James C. Docherty, Peter Lamb. Service, Robert (2003). In turn the Soviet Union began taking an active role in the United Nations as well as in other major international and regional organizations. World Encyclopedia. Applebaum, Anne (2003). https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/union-soviet-socialist-republics, "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Each republic was independent and handled its own cultural affairs. International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. The ruling communist party lost its grip on the media and the people. Cambridge, Mass. A new constitution went into effect in 1977. 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